Busan, South Korea

Busan pulses with a different rhythm than Seoul. South Korea‘s second-largest city sprawls along the southeastern coast, where the Nakdong River meets the Korea Strait, creating a maritime metropolis that feels both ancient and ultramodern. This is a city where Buddhist temples perch on forested hillsides overlooking container ports, where traditional fish markets buzz beneath gleaming skyscrapers, and where beach culture thrives alongside cutting-edge technology. Busan’s 3.4 million residents have cultivated a more relaxed, open-minded culture compared to the capital, earning their city a reputation as Korea’s most livable urban center. The dialect here carries a musical lilt, the seafood is unparalleled, and the mountain-framed coastline provides a stunning backdrop for one of Asia’s most dynamic port cities.

Busan’s Coastal Soul: Where Mountains Meet the Sea

Busan’s geography defines its character in ways that few cities can match. The Taebaek Mountains roll down to meet the sea, creating a landscape of dramatic contrasts where forested peaks overlook sprawling beaches and busy harbors. This topographical drama shapes daily life, from the hillside neighborhoods that climb impossibly steep slopes to the extensive subway system that tunnels through mountain ridges to connect distant districts.

The city’s relationship with water runs deeper than geography. As Korea’s largest port, Busan handles over 75% of the country’s container traffic, making it one of the world’s busiest shipping hubs. The massive Busan Port stretches for miles along the coastline, its towering cranes and stacked containers creating an industrial ballet against the mountain backdrop. Yet within minutes of these commercial districts, you can find yourself on pristine beaches or hiking trails that feel worlds away from urban life.

This duality extends to the city’s climate and seasons. Summers bring warm, humid weather perfect for beach activities, while winters remain mild compared to the rest of Korea thanks to maritime influence. Spring arrives early here, with cherry blossoms blooming weeks before Seoul, and autumn stretches longer, with comfortable temperatures lasting well into November.

The mountain-sea dynamic creates distinct microclimates throughout the city. Coastal areas enjoy sea breezes that moderate summer heat, while inland valleys can feel significantly warmer. Neighborhoods built on hillsides offer spectacular views but require serious leg strength for daily navigation. This vertical city rewards those willing to climb, whether it’s reaching a temple perched on a ridge or finding a rooftop bar with panoramic harbor views.

Temple District and Cultural Heritage

Beomeosa Temple anchors Busan’s spiritual landscape from its position on the slopes of Geumjeongsan Mountain. Founded in 678 CE during the Silla Dynasty, this ancient Buddhist complex represents over 1,300 years of continuous religious practice. The temple’s name translates to “temple where fish from heaven play,” referencing a legend about a golden fish that descended from heaven to play in a well on the mountainside.

The approach to Beomeosa sets the tone for what makes Busan’s temples special. Unlike Seoul’s urban temples squeezed between buildings, Beomeosa sits within Geumjeongsan National Park, reached by winding paths through dense forest. The journey becomes part of the spiritual experience, with the sounds of the city fading as you climb through bamboo groves and past ancient stone markers.

The temple complex itself showcases traditional Korean Buddhist architecture at its finest. The main hall, Daeungjeon, houses three golden Buddha statues and features intricate dancheong paintwork in brilliant reds, blues, and greens. The three-story stone pagoda, designated as National Treasure No. 250, demonstrates the sophisticated stonework techniques of ancient Korean craftsmen.

Haedong Yonggungsa Temple offers a completely different but equally powerful experience. This seaside temple, built in 1376, perches on rocky cliffs overlooking the East Sea, making it one of the few Buddhist temples in Korea built beside the ocean rather than in the mountains. The dramatic location, with waves crashing against the rocks below the prayer halls, creates an atmosphere of both serenity and raw natural power.

Visiting Haedong Yonggungsa at sunrise has become a pilgrimage for both believers and photographers. The temple’s pagoda silhouetted against the dawn sky, with the vast ocean stretching to the horizon, creates one of Korea’s most iconic spiritual images. The temple’s unique seaside location stems from a dream vision received by the monk Naong in 1376, who was told to build a temple by the sea to bring peace and prosperity to the region.

Beyond these major temples, Busan’s neighborhoods hide dozens of smaller Buddhist and Confucian shrines, each with their own stories and local significance. The preservation of these religious sites within an rapidly modernizing city demonstrates Busan’s commitment to maintaining cultural continuity even as it embraces change.

Gamcheon Culture Village: The Machu Picchu of Busan

Gamcheon Culture Village represents one of the most successful urban renewal projects in Korea, transforming a hillside slum into an open-air art gallery that attracts over two million visitors annually. This maze of pastel-colored houses climbing the steep slopes of Saha District earned its “Machu Picchu of Busan” nickname from its dramatic mountain setting and terraced layout that resembles the ancient Incan city.

The village’s story begins in the 1950s, when refugees fleeing the Korean War settled on these previously uninhabitable slopes. For decades, Gamcheon remained one of Busan’s poorest neighborhoods, with residents living in cramped houses accessible only by narrow, winding alleys. By the early 2000s, the area faced abandonment as younger residents moved to more convenient parts of the city.

The transformation began in 2009 with the “Dreaming of Machupicchu in Busan” project, a collaboration between local government, universities, and residents to revitalize the community through art and tourism. Artists worked with residents to paint murals, create sculptures, and establish galleries throughout the village. The key to the project’s success was its community-centered approach—residents became stakeholders rather than being displaced by gentrification.

Today’s Gamcheon Culture Village functions as both a living neighborhood and an artistic destination. Houses painted in vibrant blues, yellows, pinks, and greens cascade down the mountainside, connected by staircases and narrow paths that reveal new artworks around every corner. The famous “Little Prince and Fox” sculpture, inspired by Saint-Exupéry’s novella, has become the village’s most photographed landmark, positioned to overlook the entire colorful landscape.

The village operates numerous artist studios, craft shops, and small cafes run by residents. These businesses provide sustainable income while maintaining the area’s character. Visitors can participate in workshops teaching traditional Korean crafts, attend small-scale concerts in converted houses, or simply wander the labyrinthine alleys discovering murals that tell the stories of the people who live here.

The success of Gamcheon has inspired similar projects throughout Korea and internationally. However, the village now faces new challenges as its popularity brings crowds that can overwhelm the narrow streets and disrupt daily life for residents. Managing tourism impact while preserving the community’s authentic character remains an ongoing balance.

Beach Life and Coastal Adventures

Busan’s coastline stretches for over 200 kilometers, encompassing everything from urban beaches packed with summer crowds to hidden coves accessible only by hiking trails. This variety means that whether you’re seeking active water sports, relaxing sunbathing, or dramatic coastal walks, Busan’s shores can accommodate your preferences.

Haeundae Beach claims the title of Korea’s most famous seaside destination, and for good reason. This 1.5-kilometer stretch of fine sand sits in the heart of Busan’s most developed district, backed by luxury hotels, shopping centers, and residential towers. During summer, Haeundae becomes a sea of colorful umbrellas and beach tents, with up to 100,000 visitors on peak days. The beach culture here is distinctly Korean—families set up elaborate camps with portable shelters, bring home-cooked meals, and spend entire days socializing on the sand.

The Haeundae experience extends beyond the beach itself. The Marine City towers create a stunning backdrop of illuminated high-rises, while Dongbaekseom Island, connected to the beach by a short walk, offers walking trails and observation decks with panoramic coastal views. The nearby BEXCO convention center and Centum City shopping district make Haeundae a complete urban resort experience.

Gwangalli Beach offers a more sophisticated alternative to Haeundae’s family-friendly atmosphere. The 1.4-kilometer beach faces Gwangan Bridge, a suspension bridge that becomes a spectacular light show after dark. The beach’s numerous bars, cafes, and restaurants create a vibrant nightlife scene, with outdoor seating areas where visitors can enjoy drinks while watching the bridge’s LED display sync to music.

For those seeking quieter coastal experiences, Dadaepo Beach provides wide open spaces and stunning sunsets. This western-facing beach offers the rare opportunity in Korea to watch the sun set over the ocean, creating golden light shows that attract photographers and couples. The nearby Dadaepo Dream Sunset Fountain combines water, light, and music in evening performances that complement the natural sunset spectacle.

Adventure seekers will find excellent opportunities for water sports throughout Busan’s coastal areas. Surfing has grown increasingly popular at beaches like Songdo and Ilgwang, where consistent swells and surf schools make the sport accessible to beginners. Sea kayaking tours explore hidden coves and sea caves along the more rugged sections of coastline, while deep-sea fishing charters head out into the Korea Strait in search of mackerel, sea bream, and other local species.

The Galmaet-gil coastal walking trail connects many of Busan’s beaches and scenic points in a 100-kilometer network of paths that can be tackled in sections or as multi-day hiking adventures. These trails offer perspectives on Busan’s coastline impossible to achieve from beaches alone, passing through fishing villages, along cliff tops, and through coastal forests.

Jagalchi Fish Market and Busan’s Food Culture

Jagalchi Fish Market represents far more than a place to buy seafood—it’s the beating heart of Busan’s maritime culture and Korea’s largest seafood market. Located near Busan Harbor, this sprawling complex processes over 100 tons of fish daily, supplying restaurants throughout Korea while providing an authentic glimpse into the city’s relationship with the sea.

The market’s origins trace back to the Japanese colonial period, but it gained its current character during the Korean War when refugees, particularly women, began selling fish to survive. These “Jagalchi ajumma” (middle-aged women) became legendary for their business acumen and strong personalities, traditions that continue today as many stalls remain family operations passed down through generations.

Walking through Jagalchi assaults the senses in the best possible way. Vendors call out prices for everything from tiny anchovies to massive tuna, while the sounds of ice being shoveled and fish being cleaned create a constant background rhythm. The visual spectacle includes species most visitors have never seen—strange deep-sea creatures with bulging eyes, colorful sea snails, and writhing octopi that seem to watch potential buyers.

The market divides into distinct sections, each specializing in different types of seafood. The ground floor focuses on fresh catches, with vendors selling directly from ice-filled containers. Live seafood occupies much of the first floor, where tanks bubble with crabs, lobsters, abalone, and various fish species. The upper floors house restaurants where visitors can have their purchases prepared immediately or order from the establishment’s own fresh selections.

Busan’s signature dishes reflect the city’s maritime heritage and the abundance of local waters. Milmyeon, cold buckwheat noodles served in an icy broth, was created in Busan by North Korean refugees who adapted their traditional naengmyeon to local ingredients. The dish typically includes thin slices of beef and hard-boiled egg, with the refreshing broth providing relief from summer humidity.

Dwaeji gukbap, pork soup with rice, might seem unrelated to seafood but represents another Busan innovation born from necessity. This hearty dish originated during the Korean War when pork bones were boiled for hours to extract maximum nutrition. The resulting milky white broth, served with rice and various side dishes, became a Busan comfort food that remains popular throughout Korea.

Ssiat hotteok showcases Busan’s twist on a popular Korean street snack. While Seoul’s hotteok features sweet fillings, Busan’s version includes sunflower seeds, providing additional texture and a nutty flavor that pairs perfectly with the sweet brown sugar syrup inside the pancake.

The raw fish culture in Busan reaches its pinnacle at dedicated hoe centers, where diners select live fish from tanks to be prepared as sashimi. These establishments offer far more variety than typical sushi restaurants, featuring species like sea bream, flounder, and mackerel prepared with Korean accompaniments including spicy gochujang sauce and fermented seafood condiments.

Nightlife and Entertainment Districts

Busan’s nightlife reflects the city’s relaxed coastal personality while offering sophisticated entertainment options that rival any major Asian city. The various districts each cater to different crowds and preferences, from university student hangouts to upscale cocktail scenes that attract international business travelers.

Seomyeon serves as Busan’s primary entertainment hub, centered around the busy subway interchange that makes it accessible from anywhere in the city. This district buzzes with activity from afternoon until dawn, with everything from karaoke rooms and dance clubs to intimate jazz bars and late-night food stalls. The area’s density means you can bar-hop on foot, moving between a rooftop cocktail lounge with harbor views to a basement club featuring local DJs within minutes.

The Seomyeon experience includes Korea’s signature nightlife activities adapted to Busan’s character. Noraebang (karaoke rooms) here often feature beach and ocean-themed decorations, while the song selections include more international pop music reflecting the city’s cosmopolitan nature. Many establishments stay open until sunrise, catering to Busan’s port workers whose schedules don’t align with typical business hours.

Gwangalli Beach transforms after dark into a sophisticated nightlife destination. The beachfront bars and clubs offer outdoor seating where patrons can enjoy cocktails while watching Gwangan Bridge’s illuminated display. These venues often feature live music, with genres ranging from jazz and blues to electronic music that complements the urban beach atmosphere.

The craft beer scene in Gwangalli has exploded in recent years, with several microbreweries taking advantage of the beach location to create unique Korean beers with names like “Haeundae Hefe” and “Busan Blonde.” These establishments often incorporate local ingredients, including seafood-inspired flavors that sound unusual but pair surprisingly well with the ocean setting.

Haeundae’s nightlife centers around the luxury hotels and high-end shopping areas, creating a more refined atmosphere than the boisterous college scene in Seomyeon. Hotel rooftop bars offer spectacular views of the beach and city skyline, while casino facilities in several properties attract international visitors seeking Vegas-style gaming experiences.

The Haeundae club scene features venues that wouldn’t look out of place in Seoul or Tokyo, with world-class sound systems, international DJ lineups, and dress codes that encourage glamorous attire. These clubs often stay busy until dawn, particularly during summer when the beach location creates a resort-like party atmosphere.

PNU (Pusan National University) area caters primarily to students and young locals, offering budget-friendly options including traditional Korean bars called “hofs” where beer flows freely and fried chicken is the snack of choice. This district provides authentic local nightlife experiences without the tourist markup found in more famous areas.

Busan’s red-light district around Texas Street offers adult entertainment similar to other Korean cities, though visitors should be aware of local laws and cultural sensitivities. The area also features numerous bars and restaurants that operate legitimately and welcome foreign visitors looking for late-night dining and drinking options.

Getting Around Korea’s Second City

Busan’s public transportation system efficiently connects the city’s sprawling districts despite challenging topography that includes mountains, rivers, and coastal barriers. The extensive subway network, comprehensive bus system, and strategic placement of transportation hubs make it possible to reach virtually any destination without a car, though understanding the system’s nuances can significantly improve your travel experience.

The Busan Metro consists of four color-coded lines that intersect at key transfer stations throughout the city. Line 1 (Orange) runs east-west from Sinpyeong to Dadaepo Beach, passing through major destinations including Seomyeon, Nampo-dong, and Jagalchi Market. Line 2 (Green) travels north-south, connecting Haeundae Beach to Yangsan and passing through Busan Station and Seomyeon. Lines 3 (Brown) and 4 (Blue) serve outlying areas and provide connections to specific attractions like Beomeosa Temple.

Metro operation hours run from approximately 5:30 AM to midnight, with trains arriving every 2-4 minutes during peak hours and every 6-8 minutes during off-peak times. The system uses both single-journey tickets and rechargeable transit cards, with the latter offering slight discounts and convenience for multiple trips. Station announcements and signs include English, though learning key Korean station names proves helpful for navigation.

Busan’s bus network fills gaps left by the subway system, particularly for reaching beaches, mountains, and suburban areas. The city operates several bus types distinguished by color coding: blue buses for long-distance routes within the city, green buses for shorter local routes, red buses for express services, and yellow buses for circular routes connecting major tourist areas.

Beach access relies heavily on buses, as subway lines don’t directly serve all coastal areas. Route 1003 connects Seomyeon to various beaches including Gwangalli and Haeundae, while specialized beach buses operate during summer months with increased frequency and extended hours. Having a transportation app like Citymapper or KakaoMap (with Korean language skills) significantly simplifies bus travel by providing real-time arrival information and route planning.

Taxis provide convenient point-to-point transportation, though costs can add up quickly for longer distances across the sprawling city. Regular taxis (silver or white) use meters and offer the most economical service, while deluxe taxis (black) provide more comfort and space at higher rates. Language barriers can complicate taxi travel—having destinations written in Korean or using translation apps helps ensure you reach the correct location.

The city’s bike-sharing system, Nubija, offers an eco-friendly option for short-distance travel and exploration. Stations cluster around major tourist areas, beaches, and transportation hubs, though Busan’s hilly terrain makes cycling challenging in many neighborhoods. Coastal areas provide the most bike-friendly routes, with dedicated paths connecting several beaches and offering scenic rides along the waterfront.

For visitors staying longer periods, monthly transportation passes provide significant savings compared to individual tickets. These passes work on both subway and bus systems, making it economical to explore the city extensively. However, calculate your expected usage carefully, as the break-even point requires considerable daily travel.

Airport connections deserve special mention due to Gimhae International Airport’s location outside the city center. The airport limousine bus network provides direct service to major hotels and districts, while subway connections require transfers that can be time-consuming with luggage. Light rail service directly connects the airport to Sasang Station on subway Line 2, offering a budget-friendly but slower alternative to bus services.

Day Trips from Busan’s Doorstep

Busan’s strategic location in southeastern Korea provides excellent access to diverse destinations that showcase different aspects of Korean culture, history, and natural beauty. From ancient capitals to pristine islands, these day trips offer experiences impossible to find within the city itself while remaining easily accessible by public transportation or organized tours.

Gyeongju stands as Korea’s premier historical destination, earning its nickname as “the museum without walls” for the density of cultural treasures scattered throughout the former Silla Dynasty capital. Just 90 minutes from Busan by express bus or train, Gyeongju preserves over 1,000 years of royal history in tombs, temples, and artifacts that earned UNESCO World Heritage status.

The Gyeongju experience centers on Tumuli Park, where dozens of grass-covered burial mounds hide treasures from Silla royalty. Visitors can enter Cheonmachong (Heavenly Horse Tomb) to see original burial chambers and artifacts including the golden crown that symbolizes Silla craftsmanship. The nearby Gyeongju National Museum houses additional treasures, including the famous Emille Bell whose legendary sound could be heard for miles.

Bulguksa Temple and Seokguram Grotto represent the pinnacle of Korean Buddhist art and architecture. Bulguksa’s stone bridges, pagodas, and halls demonstrate mathematical precision and aesthetic sophistication that influenced temple design throughout East Asia. The nearby Seokguram Grotto houses a granite Buddha statue considered one of the finest examples of Buddhist sculpture in the world, positioned to face the sunrise over the East Sea.

Ulsan, Korea’s industrial powerhouse, might seem an unlikely day trip destination, but the city offers unique attractions including Bangudae Petroglyphs, prehistoric rock carvings dating back 7,000 years. These images of whales, deer, and human figures provide insights into ancient Korean life and demonstrate the region’s long relationship with the sea. Ulsan’s modern attractions include the massive Hyundai shipyard, where visitors can observe the construction of some of the world’s largest vessels.

Tongyeong, known as the “Naples of Korea” for its coastal setting and maritime culture, offers a different perspective on Korean seaside life. This historic city served as the headquarters of Korea’s naval forces during the Imjin War, when Admiral Yi Sun-sin’s turtle ships defeated invading Japanese fleets. The Tongyeong Music Festival and local seafood specialties make it popular with domestic tourists seeking authentic coastal experiences.

Island hopping from Tongyeong provides access to some of Korea’s most beautiful maritime landscapes. Hansando Island houses shrines to Admiral Yi Sun-sin and offers hiking trails with spectacular views of the surrounding archipelago. Bijindo Island features pristine beaches and crystal-clear waters that rival tropical destinations, while maintaining a distinctly Korean character with fishing villages and traditional coastal architecture.

Jinhae, famous for its cherry blossom festival, transforms into a pink wonderland each April when thousands of cherry trees bloom simultaneously. The small city near Busan becomes Korea’s premier hanami destination, with festivals, food stalls, and cultural performances celebrating spring’s arrival. Outside cherry blossom season, Jinhae offers naval museums and peaceful parks that provide insight into Korea’s maritime military history.

The DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) remains accessible from Busan through organized tours that typically include transportation to the Joint Security Area at Panmunjom. These full-day excursions provide sobering insights into Korea’s division and ongoing tensions, while offering opportunities to technically cross into North Korea within the JSA’s neutral zone. The tours require advance booking and passport verification due to security protocols.

Haeinsa Temple, home to the Tripitaka Koreana wooden printing blocks, represents one of Korea’s most significant cultural treasures. This mountain temple, about two hours from Busan, houses over 80,000 wooden blocks containing the complete Buddhist scriptures carved during the 13th century. The temple’s location in Gayasan National Park provides excellent hiking opportunities and spectacular autumn foliage viewing.

Practical Essentials for Your Busan Adventure

Successfully navigating Busan requires understanding practical considerations that can significantly impact your travel experience. From seasonal weather patterns that affect activity planning to local customs that influence daily interactions, these details help visitors make the most of their time while avoiding common pitfalls that can complicate travel in Korea’s second city.

Weather planning proves crucial for Busan visits, as the coastal climate creates distinct seasonal experiences that affect everything from clothing choices to available activities. Summer (June-August) brings hot, humid weather with temperatures often exceeding 30°C (86°F) and humidity levels that can feel oppressive, particularly inland from the coast. This season coincides with monsoon rains that can dump significant precipitation in short periods, making waterproof gear essential. However, summer also provides the best beach weather and warmest ocean temperatures for swimming.

Spring (March-May) and autumn (September-November) offer the most comfortable weather for general sightseeing, with mild temperatures and lower humidity making walking tours and outdoor activities pleasant. Spring brings cherry blossoms earlier than most of Korea, while autumn provides spectacular foliage in the surrounding mountains. These shoulder seasons also feature fewer crowds at major attractions and better hotel rates.

Winter (December-February) remains mild compared to northern Korea, with temperatures rarely dropping below freezing and minimal snowfall. This season provides excellent visibility for photography and comfortable conditions for exploring indoor attractions like markets and museums. Many outdoor water activities shut down, but winter offers unique experiences like watching sunrise at Haedong Yonggungsa Temple without summer crowds.

Currency and payment systems in Busan follow Korean national standards, with the Korean won (KRW) as the official currency. Credit cards are widely accepted at established businesses, hotels, and restaurants, though many traditional markets and street food vendors operate cash-only. ATMs that accept foreign cards can be found at convenience stores, banks, and subway stations, though withdrawal fees can add up over extended stays.

Mobile phone connectivity proves essential for navigation, translation, and accessing real-time transportation information. Most international phones work in Korea, though data roaming charges can be expensive. Rental phones, SIM cards for unlocked devices, and portable WiFi devices provide more economical alternatives available at Gimhae Airport and throughout the city. Many public areas offer free WiFi, though coverage can be spotty in some outdoor locations.

Language considerations significantly impact the Busan experience, as English proficiency varies widely depending on the area and type of establishment. Tourist areas like Haeundae and major hotels typically have English-speaking staff, while traditional markets and local neighborhoods may require basic Korean phrases or translation apps. Learning key words for directions, food items, and emergencies proves invaluable, particularly when using public transportation or ordering at local restaurants.

Accommodation options range from luxury beach resorts to budget guesthouses, with location choice significantly affecting your experience. Staying near Haeundae Beach provides easy access to major attractions but can be crowded and expensive, particularly during summer. Seomyeon offers excellent transportation connections and nightlife access at more reasonable prices, while areas like PNU provide budget options popular with younger travelers.

Cultural etiquette in Busan follows Korean national customs with some local variations reflecting the city’s more relaxed coastal culture. Basic courtesy includes bowing when greeting older individuals, removing shoes when entering homes or certain restaurants, and using both hands when giving or receiving business cards or money. Busan residents are generally more informal than Seoul inhabitants, but maintaining respectful behavior remains important.

Safety considerations for Busan visitors are minimal, as Korea maintains one of the world’s lowest crime rates. Violent crime against tourists is extremely rare, though basic precautions like securing valuables and avoiding excessive alcohol consumption remain sensible. The main safety concerns involve traffic, as Korean driving can appear chaotic to foreign visitors, and ocean activities during rough weather conditions.

Emergency services operate efficiently throughout Busan, with police (112), fire/ambulance (119), and tourist hotline (1330) providing assistance in multiple languages. Major hospitals in districts like Haeundae and Seomyeon have international departments with English-speaking staff, while most pharmacies can provide basic medications without prescriptions.

Shopping opportunities abound throughout Busan, from traditional markets selling local specialties to modern malls featuring international brands. Jagalchi Market offers dried seafood products that make unique gifts, while Gamcheon Culture Village features local artwork and handicrafts. Duty-free shopping at major hotels and Gimhae Airport provides last-minute gift options, though prices may not always beat local retailers.

Food safety standards in Busan are generally high, though visitors should exercise normal caution when eating street food or at establishments with questionable hygiene. Tap water is safe to drink throughout the city, though many visitors prefer bottled water. Food allergies can be challenging to communicate, so having restrictions written in Korean or using detailed translation apps proves essential for those with serious dietary concerns.

📷 Featured image by Umair Dingmar on Unsplash.